Answer all questions
Define Human Factors
In the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) , Human Factors is defined as Multidisciplinary effort to generate and compile information about human capabilities and limitations and apply that information to equipment, systems, facilities, procedures, jobs, environments, training, staffing and personnel management.
Human Factors refer to environmental, organisational and job factors, and human and individual characteristics, which influence behaviour at work in a way which can effect health and safety.
What Knowledge Base Behavior?
As conclu- sion, they mentioned: Air Traffic Expert Controller is a dynamically driven Expert System with its knowledge base consisting of rules and facts. The rules reflect ATC operational procedures and regulations enhanced by the “experience of the domain experts (air traffic controllers).In the knowledge based mode, the human carries out a task in an almost completely conscious manner. This would occur in a situation where a beginner was performing the task (e.g. a trainee process worker) or where an experienced individual was faced with a completely novel situation.
What is Situational Awareness?
For a controller, situational awareness means acquiring and maintaining a mental picture of the traffic situation being managed and maintaining an appreciation of the potential for unexpected progressions or changes in this scenario.
Situational awareness (SA) is having an accurate understanding of ‘what is going on’ relating to the situation or system of context to you, whether you are flying or controlling aircraft, attending to passengers, or maintaining an aircraft or system.
What is Group Think?
Groupthink is a phenomenon that occurs when a group of individuals reaches a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the consequences or alternatives. Groupthink is based on a common desire not to upset the balance of a group of people.
This desire creates a dynamic within a group whereby creativity and individuality tend to be stifled in order to avoid conflict.
What is Gate Keeping?
A Gate Management System (GMS) helps the airport allocate gates for arriving aircraft, plan ramp and gate operations and utilize the available resources of the airport in the most efficient manner. With a GMS, airports can even let airlines with quick turnarounds take decisions on gate allocations to enhance ground operations. These systems can also link to airport displays to provide up-to-date information on waiting for passengers on gate boarding, travel delays or changes.
What is Team Building?
The ATS system relies on good teamwork to achieve its goals. ATS team members typically know one another well, which makes achieving standard procedures simpler. (This can be more of a challenge for flight crews, especially with large airlines, who might meet for the first time on any given flight.)
Operationally, the ATS team can be as small as the controllers and assistants working together in an operational area, or large enough to embrace associated ATC units such as APP, TWR and GND, or wide area coverage within or between ACCs. Supporting operational staff such as flow managers, planners, supervisors, are also important and controllers rely on effective co-operation with them to optimise their work.
Taking a different view, the team can be seen to include the aircraft and airlines to which ATS provide service which is both safe and effficient. At the organisational level, it can be seen to embrace the corporate management which provides direction to unit level and the strategic links to customer organisations, government, regulatory bodies, and international ATC organisations
What is Free Flight?
The free flight (FF) concept is characterised by being a direct route concept where the pilots, instead of the air traffic controller, are responsible for the separation assurance.
Moving this task to the cockpit has consequences for the man machine interface in the cockpit, which needs to be modified to accommodate this new task (micro level design). On top of that, a set of rules and procedures are required to ensure an efficient and safe traffic flow (macro level design). Both the micro and macro aspect of this design are intertwined and require an accurate tuning to arrive at an overall acceptable solution. Both micro-level (flight simulator) experiments and macro-level (traffic simulations) experiments have been conducted to investigate the feasibility of this concept after optimising the initial conceptual design.
What is RADAR?
The air traffic control radar beacon system (ATCRBS) is a system used in air traffic control (ATC) to enhance surveillance radar monitoring and separation .
The primary radar’s main function is to determine the location, the bearing and range to the aircraft. Air traffic controllers continuously monitor the positions of all the aircraft on the radar screen, and give directions to the pilots by radio to maintain a safe and orderly flow of air traffic in the airspace.
What is PTSD?
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a complex and debilitating condition that can affect every aspect of a person’s life.
Traumatic events (called critical incidents) are those which involve an individual being exposed to an extraordinary situation (usually life-threatening, or believed to be life-threatening) which, depending on the circumstances, is perceived with a varying degree of fear, horror and or helplessness. Examples in aviation include:
aircraft accident;
involvement in disasters/major incidents;
hijack;
colleague seriously injured/dead;
terrorism;
use of firearms;
children injured or dead;
situations of extreme strain, eg of long duration, high intensity and/or involving extreme sensory input;
turbulence which threatens continued flight.
What are Circadian Rhythms?
Possibly because days on Earth were longer in the distant past, the circadian cycle is a 25-hour cycle. The risk in aviation is that any time that our normal circadian rhythm is altered or interrupted, physiological and behavioural effects occur. This risk is known as circadian rhythm disruption, or CRD.
Circadian rhythm is the internal biological clock that regulates body functions based on our wake/sleep cycle. It can be disrupted by changes in sleep pattern. Aircrew members may experience circadian rhythm disruption (specifically “jet lag”) as they work.
Answer all questions
(a) Explain in brief about the Engineering Model
.
An ATC system is in charge of managing all ground and en-route flight operations, with the aim of preventing collisions and organizing the flow of traffic. To build software for ATC systems, the most consolidated development process model is by far the V-Model.
I. BUILDING ATC SYSTEMS TODAY
.
One of the fundamental pillars of Air Traffic Management
(ATM) is Air Traffic Control (ATC). ATC systems are
software-intensive critical systems which take care of assuring
that aircrafts are safely separated in the sky as they fly, and
at the airports where they land and take off [1]. An ATC
system is in charge of managing all ground and en-route
flight operations, with the aim of preventing collisions and
organizing the flow of traffic.
II. LOOKING AT MODEL-DRIVEN APPROACH
Given these requirements, a model-driven approach seems attractive for us. We look, as specific paradigm, at Modeldriven Architecture (MDA) [3]. Besides the claimed advantages in terms of interoperability, portability and reusability,
we are interested in these key features:
manual activity in repetitive error-prone tasks are minimized;
redundant descriptions, at different stages, of the software behaviour are avoided by automatic transformations; this
minimizes inconsistencies;
early verification and validation of design artefacts are aided by tools and favoured by modelling notation and rules
design-oriented flow helps to optimize testing effort;
code can be generated automatically, which is definitely the most striking feature;
maintenance cost is also reduced, since the effort of introducing a change at upper level can be minimized by automatic transformations model to model and model to code;
compared to pure text, models are less prone to misinterpretation. They dramatically reduce the possibility of
misunderstandings on artefacts between different teams, as well as between teams and stakeholders, at every stage
III. EMBEDDING MDA/MDT INTO A V-MODEL
Incorporating a model-driven way of thinking in a full development cycle cannot be accomplished by simply placing
MDA steps in the design/coding phase. If we want real benefits, we must handle: how to deal with phases not covered by MDA, and how existing well-proven activities will interact with MDA ones. This is of paramount importance to avoid bottlenecks and to not cancel potentialities of Model-driven. In ATC systems engineering, an important need is to optimize testing activity. MDA primarily focuses on the “development” side. Verification is basically supported only as cross-checking of design artefacts consistency, but it is mostly neglected. Model-driven Testing (MDT) is the key; it shifts MDA concepts into testing Nevertheless, these two practices are not fully integrated and people do not see them under the same umbrella during everyday work. As MDA, MDT proposes Platform-Independent and Platform-Specific models as well, named PIT and PST, where T stand for “Test”. And, exactly like MDA does, MDT can potentially reduce testing cost by deriving test cases automatically from these models
Or
(b) Explain in brief about nature of human error.
Human performance will be one of the main enablers of future air traffic management capacity and safety. It follows that human error remains one of the main potential “stumbling blocks” to achieving the Error can be a function of the selection, training and experience of the controller. However, and more importantly for this paper, the quality of the equipment provided and environment in which the controller works has a major impact on the likelihood of human error in operation. efficient and safe air transportation desired by the public in the future. Research by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration into aviation accidents has found that 70% involve human error. In aviation, accidents are usually highly visible, and as a result aviation has developed standardised methods of investigating, documenting, and disseminating errors and their lessons Although operating theatres are not cockpits, medicine could learn from aviation Observation of flights in operation has identified failures of compliance, communication, procedures, proficiency, and decision making in contributing to errors Surveys in operating theatres have confirmed that pilots and doctors have common interpersonal problem areas and similarities in professional culture
Accepting the inevitability of error and the importance of reliable data on error and its management will allow systematic efforts to reduce the frequency and severity of adverse events Pilots and doctors operate in complex environments where teams interact with technology. In both domains, risk varies from low to high with threats coming from a variety of sources in the environment. Safety is paramount for both professions, but cost issues can influence the commitment of resources for safety efforts. Aircraft accidents are infrequent, highly visible, and often involve massive loss of life, resulting in exhaustive investigation into causal factors, public reports, and remedial action. Research by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration into aviation accidents has found that 70% involve human error.
In contrast, medical adverse events happen to individual patients and seldom receive national publicity. More importantly, there is no standardised method of investigation, documentation, and dissemination. The US Institute of Medicine estimates that each year between 44 000 and 98 000 people die as a result of medical errors. When error is suspected, litigation and new regulations are threats in both medicine and aviation.
(a) Explain in brief the factors that affect decision making in ATC
Aeronautical decision-making (ADM) is decision-making in a unique environment—aviation. It is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances. It is what a pilot intends to do based on the latest information he or she has.
Factors that Influence Decision Making
Several important factors influence decision making. Significant factors include past experiences, a variety of cognitive biases, an escalation of commitment and sunk outcomes, individual differences, including age and socioeconomic status, and a belief in personal relevance. These things all impact the decision-making process and the decisions made.
Juliusson, Karlsson, and Garling (2005) indicated past decisions influence the decisions people make in the future. Indeed, when something positive results from a decision, people are more likely to decide similarly, given a similar situation. On the other hand, people tend to avoid repeating past mistakes (Sagi, & Friedland, 2007). This is significant to the extent that future decisions made based on past experiences are not necessarily the best decisions. In financial decision-making, highly successful people do not make investment decisions based on past sunk outcomes, rather by examining choices with no regard for past experiences; this approach conflicts with what one may expect (Juliusson et al., 2005).
In addition to past experiences, several cognitive biases influence decision making. Cognitive biases are thinking patterns based on observations and generalisations that may lead to memory errors, inaccurate judgments, and faulty logic (Evans, Barston, & Pollard, 1983; West, Toplak, & Stanovich, 2008). Cognitive biases include, but are not limited to belief bias, the over-dependence on prior knowledge in arriving at decisions; hindsight bias, people tend to readily explain an event as inevitable, once it has happened; omission bias, generally, people have a propensity to omit information perceived as risky; and confirmation bias, in which people observe what they expect in observations (Marsh, & Hanlon, 2007; Nestler. & von Collani, 2008; Stanovich & West, 2008; see also West et al., 2008).
In decision making, cognitive biases influence people making them over-rely or lend more credence to expected observations and previous knowledge while missing relevant information or observations, and without looking at the bigger picture. While this influence may lead to poor decisions sometimes, the cognitive biases enable individuals to make efficient decisions with the assistance of the heuristic.
Furthermore, some individual differences may also influence decision making. Research has indicated that age, socioeconomic status (SES), and cognitive abilities capable to influence decision-making (de Bruin, Parker, & Fischoff, 2007; Finucane, Mertz, Slovic, & Schmidt, 2005).
Age is only one individual factor to influence decisions. According to de Bruin et al. (2007), people in lower SES groups may have less access to education and resources, which may make them more susceptible to experiencing negative life events, often beyond their control; as a result, low SES individuals may make poorer decisions, based on past decisions.
Over and above past experiences, cognitive biases, and individual differences; another influence on decision making is the belief in personal relevance. When people believe what they decide matters, they are more likely to decide. Acevedo and Krueger (2004) examined individuals’ voting patterns and concluded that people will vote more readily when they believe their opinion is indicative of the attitudes of the general population, as well as when they have a regard for their importance in the outcomes. People vote when they believe their vote counts.
Or
(b) Explain in brief about the importance of Situational Awareness in ATC.
Situational awareness is
The perception of the elements in the environment within a volume of time and space,
The comprehension of their meaning and The projection of their status in the near future.
Situational awareness enhances response coordination, mitigates risks, minimizes damages, and saves lives. It allows individuals and organizations to better understand the dynamics of various contexts, enabling them to respond and adapt effectively. Awareness of one’s surroundings also enables effective decision-making, saving time and resources.
Situational awareness is vital in:
Emergencies
Natural disasters
Security instances
Critical events
Work environments
1. Perception
The first step of situational awareness is recognizing that a person, occurrence, or incident could pose a threat. This process involves gathering information through various technology sources and active observation to remain informed about a situation.
2. Understanding
This stage requires the collected information to be processed. Assessing and analyzing the gathered data, learning to identify and anticipate possible risks or vulnerabilities, and considering context are crucial before tackling the situation.
3. Response
Responding to a critical event requires prompt and effective actions to increase the chance of safety and minimize any risks. In this decision stage, actions must be prioritized, and resources must be allocated appropriately to produce the most effective response.
Air Traffic Controllers (ATCos) are faced with the critical task of making timely decisions in response to rapidly changing air traffic. In this context, maintaining Situation Awareness (SA) becomes critical, directly influencing ATCos’ decision making and preventing potential traffic accidents or incidents
(a) Explain in brief the various stages of group development.
The primary purpose of ATC is to prevent collisions, organize and expedite the flow of traffic in the air, and provide information and other support for pilots.
These stages are commonly known as: Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing, and Adjourning. Tuckman’s model explains that as the team develops maturity and ability, relationships establish, and leadership style changes to more collaborative or shared leadership.
Forming
The initial forming stage is the process of putting the structure of the team together. Team members feel ambiguous and conflict is avoided at all costs due to the need to be accepted into the group. Team members look to a group leader for direction and guidance, usually CORAL project guides.
Storming
This stage begins to occur as the process of organizing tasks and processes surface interpersonal conflicts. Leadership, power, and structural issues dominate this stage.
Norming
In this stage, team members are creating new ways of doing and being together. As the group develops cohesion, leadership changes from ‘one’ teammate in charge to shared leadership. Team members learn they have to trust one another for shared leadership to be effective.
Performing
True interdependence is the norm of this stage of group development. The team is flexible as individuals adapt to meet the needs of other team members. This is a highly productive stage both personally and professionally.
Adjourning
In this stage typically team members are ready to leave (course termination) causing significant change to the team structure, membership, or purpose and the team during the last week of class. They experience change and transition. While the group continues to perform productively they also need time to manage their feelings of termination and transition.
Or
(b) Explain in brief about
(i) Interruptions
A threat is a condition generated in the operating environment that affects or complicates the performance of a task or a crew’s compliance with applicable standards. Interruptions and distractions are frequent threats facing flight crews and have been shown to lead to significant safety problems.
Description Pilots and air traffic controllers (ATCOs) perform lengthy and complex procedures in the course of their duties. An interruption breaks the thread of these procedures and can have undesirable consequences. Distractions can make it difficult for the pilot or ATCO to concentrate on the task in hand.
Factors Involved in Interruptions and Distractions Communications. receiving the final weights while taxing.
Head-down activity. reading the approach chart.Responding to an abnormal condition or unanticipated situation. system malfunction.
Searching for traffic after a Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS)/ACAS alert. Whilst distractions can be internal (e.g. mind-wandering) and external (e.g. background telephone conversation), task interruptions are usually triggered by external events that demand attention, such as responding to an auditory alarm or answering a task-irrelevant question.
(ii) Listening.
Most scanners pick up the entirety of the aircraft band. You can also listen to air traffic control facilities from around the world at websites including liveatc.net, globalair.com, airnav.com and radioreference.com. 2 Memorize some of the basic frequencies. 121.5 is the emergency frequency.
Finding an Aviation Frequency
1 Find live frequencies.M
Obtain a radio scanner that is capable of receiving frequencies between 118.0 and 136.975 MHz. Good brands to check out include Uniden, and Whistler. You can also find general coverage receivers from Icom, Yaesu, Grundig, Kenwood and others that will pick up air frequencies. You’re better off selecting a good scanner instead of a general coverage unit, thanks to the scanner’s ability to easily monitor multiple frequencies. Realize that in radio electronics, you get what you pay for. A scanner from one of the aforementioned brands will outperform a no-name brand that claims airline coverage. Most scanners pick up the entirety of the aircraft band.
2 Memorize some of the basic frequencies. 121.5 is the emergency frequency. If there is some sort of emergency, pilots will transmit on it. You could also hear an emergency locator beacon on this frequency if a plane crashes. 122.750 MHz is the frequency for general aviation air to air communications
2 Find the closest airport on the chart.
Airports are denoted by blue or magenta circles, with lines inside representing runways. Next to the circle is a block of text with the airport name and information about that airport. The control tower frequency is denoted by CT – 000.0, where the following numbers indicate the frequency used by ATC Understanding the lingo.
If the airport is uncontrolled (no tower) or the tower operates part time, a C in a circle after a frequency number will be used to denote a Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF). A star will be after the tower frequency to denote that airport as having a part time tower.
Identifying the airports.
All controlled airports will be denoted by blue circles, while uncontrolled airports are magenta. Airports with runways over 8,000 feet (2,438.4 m) are not enclosed in circles and simply have a diagram depicting the runway layout, which is outlined in blue (controlled) or magenta (uncontrolled).
Listen to weather forecasts and airport information as you prepare to land.
Some airports have AWOS (Automated Weather Observing System), ASOS (Automated Surface Observing System), or ATIS (Automated Terminal Information Service) frequencies listed on the chart. These are automated or repeating broadcasts that provide pilots with weather and airport information as they prepare to land or depart.
Obtain a complete list of frequencies.
If you have access to an airport/facility directory, you can find more frequencies than those available on the chart. At larger airports, pilots receive their flight plan clearances from a “clearance delivery” frequency
(a) What is GNSS? What are the advantages of GNSS?
A global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is the generic term for any of the satellite constellations that broadcast positioning, navigation and timing data. Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is a general term describing any satellite constellation that provides positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) services on a global or regional basis.
Advantages GNSS System Tolling
Real-time Tracking:GNSS enables real-time vehicle tracking, allowing for efficient toll collection and monitoring.
Reduced Infrastructure Costs: GNSS-based tolling eliminates the need for extensive physical infrastructure, such as toll booths and gantries.
It provides more access and availability of signals to operators. GNSS provides accurate timing information which is utilized to develop high precision IoT network. Multiple GNSS constellations improve availability of navigation solution. This improves TTFF(Time to First Fix).The GNSS receiver system is quick and easy to set up and operate. It provides greater coverage than a total station, and you don’t have to worry about having a line of sight. It’s also accurate within 10mm to 30mm (both horizontally and vertically).Achieves high position accuracy with increased number of satellites compared to GPS-only positioning. Improves success rate of positioning by receiving much more satellite signals even in harsh environments (urban canyon etc.) where the GPS-only positioning is difficult.
Or
(b) Explain about Primary and Secondary RADAR.
The ATCRBS, sometimes referred to as secondary surveillance radar, consists of three main components: Interrogator. Primary radar relies on a signal being transmitted from the radar antenna site and for this signal to be reflected or “bounced back” from an object (such as an aircraft).
Reduced Clutter: Unlike primary radar, which can be affected by ground reflections and weather conditions, secondary radar focuses solely on responses from aircraft transponders, resulting in clearer radar images.
In the case of many conventional airplanes, the primary flight controls utilize hinged, trailing edge surfaces called elevators for pitch, ailerons for roll, and the rudder for yaw. Secondary flight controls are used in conjunction with primary flight controls to refine aircraft manipulations further. This practice occurs in both the primary and secondary markets, where the primary market represents the official sale of tickets by event organizers, and the secondary market involves reselling by individuals or third-party ticket brokers Primary control refers to behaviors directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control.
(a) Explain in brief about post-traumatic stress disorder
P
eople with PTSD have intense, disturbing thoughts and feelings related to their experience that last long after the traumatic event has ended. They may relive the event through flashbacks or nightmares; they may feel sadness, fear or anger; and they may feel detached or estranged from other people.
Fortunately, for most professional pilots and Air Traffic Control officers, such events are uncommon but when they do occur it is important appropriate action is taken to ensure flight safety is not compromised and for the benefit of the individual(s) involved.
Here are some positive coping methods:
Learn about trauma and PTSD
Talk to others for support
Practice relaxation methods
Distract yourself with positive activities
Talking to your doctor or a counselor about trauma and PTSD
Unwanted distressing memories, images, or thoughts
Sudden feelings of anxiety or panic.
Four Types of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)</p.
Acute PTSD. Acute PTSD is the most common type of PTSD and occurs within the first three months after a traumatic event
Chronic PTSD
Delayed onset PTSD
Complex PTSD
Why is it important for someone to get help with PTSD?
FAA standards: Pilots with PTSD must show that their condition is well-controlled and that they are stable enough to handle the demands of flying without experiencing disruptive symptoms.
Or
(b) Explain the effects of lack of sleep in the ATC Environment.
The human body adapts to shiftwork differently. These adjustments affect the health-disease process, predisposing ATC to risk conditions associated with sleep deprivation and lack of night sleep, which can lead to conditions such as cardiovascular diseases, mood disorders, anxiety, and obesity.Air traffic controllers (ATC) work shifts and their work schedules vary according to the characteristics of each airport. The human body adapts to shiftwork differently. These adjustments affect the health-disease process, predisposing ATC to risk conditions associated with sleep deprivation and lack of night sleep, which can lead to conditions such as cardiovascular diseases, mood disorders, anxiety, and obesity. This study investigated the characteristics of health, sleep, and quality of life of ATC exposed to 8-h alternate work shifts and 6-h rotational work shifts.
Methods: The study was cross-sectional with convenience samples consisting of 84 ATC from two international airports in Brazil. We applied questionnaires to collect data about socioeconomic conditions, quality of life, sleep, and physical activity levels. We also collected health data regarding nutritional status, body composition, and blood pressure. We analyzed the differences between ATC from the two airports considering the variables of sleep, quality of life, and health.
Differences were found between the groups in terms of body fat percentage (30.7% and 27.8%), scores of overall quality of life (56.2 and 68), concentration (3.37 and 3.96), energy (3.12 and 3.62), and sleep time on working days (5:20 h and 6:15 h).
ATC under 8-h alternate shifts showed lower scores for quality of life, higher body fat, and less sleep time on working days, which characterizes inadequate shiftwork for this population.
Sleep deficiency can interfere with work, school, driving, and social functioning. You might have trouble learning, focusing, and reacting. Also, you might find it hard to judge other people’s emotions and reactions. Sleep deficiency also can make you feel frustrated, cranky, or worried in social situations.
Answer all questions
(a) Explain in detail about the SHELL model.
The SHELL model is originated from SHEL model by Edwards in 1972, and developed by. Hawkins in 1975. The SHELL model mainly describes the relationship between the Human Factors. and the aviation environment.
The atomic shell model explains the structure of atoms. The negatively charged fundamental particles which are known as electrons are considered to occupy diffuse shells in the space that surrounds the positively charged nucleus. The shell which is closest to the nucleus is the first shell.The concept (the name being derived from the initial letters of its components, Software, Hardware, Environment, Liveware) was first developed by Edwards in 1972, with a modified diagram to illustrate the model developed by Hawkins in 1975.
ICAO SHELL Model, as described in ICAO Doc 9859, Safety Management Manual, is a conceptual tool used to analyse the interaction of multiple system components. It also refers to a framework proposed in ICAO Circular 216-AN31.
The concept (the name being derived from the initial letters of its components, Software, Hardware, Environment, Liveware) was first developed by Edwards in 1972, with a modified diagram to illustrate the model developed by Hawkins in 1975.
One practical diagram to illustrate this conceptual model uses blocks to represent the different components of Human Factors. This building block diagram does not cover the interfaces which are outside Human Factors (hardware-hardware; hardware-environment; software-hardware) and is only intended as a basic aid to understanding Human Factors:
Software – the rules, procedures, written documents etc., which are part of the standard operating procedures.
Hardware – the Air Traffic Control suites, their configuration, controls and surfaces, displays and functional systems.
Environment – the situation in which the L-H-S system must function, the social and economic climate as well as the natural environment.
Liveware – the human beings – the controller with other controllers, flight crews, engineers and maintenance personnel, management and administration people – within in the system.
According to the SHELL Model, a mismatch between the Liveware and other four components contributes to human error. Thus, these interactions must be assessed and considered in all sectors of the aviation system.
Liveware
The critical focus of the model is the human participant, or liveware, the most critical as well as the most flexible component in the system. The edges of this block are not simple and straight, and so the other components of the system must be carefully matched to them if stress in the system and eventual breakdown are to be avoided.
However, of all the dimensions in the model, this is the one which is least predictable and most susceptible to the effects of internal (hunger, fatigue, motivation, etc.) and external (temperature, light, noise, workload, etc.) changes.
Human Error is often seen as the negative consequence of the liveware dimension in this interactive system. Sometimes, two simplistic alternatives are proposed in addressing error: there is no point in trying to remove errors from human performance, they are independent of training; or, humans are error prone systems, therefore they should be removed from decision making in risky situations and replaced by computer controlled devices. Neither of these alternatives are particularly helpful in managing errors.
Liveware-Liveware (the intertface between people and other people)
This is the interface between people. In this interface, we are concerned with leadership, co-operation, teamwork and personality interactions. It includes programmes like Crew Resource Management (CRM), the ATC equivalent – TRM (TRM), Line Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) etc.
Liveware-Software (The interface between people and software)
Software is the collective term which refers to all the laws, rules, regulations, orders, standard operating procedures, customs and conventions and the normal way in which things are done. Increasingly, software also refers to the computer-based programmes developed to operate the automated systems.
In order to achieve a safe, effective operation between the liveware and software it is important to ensure that the software, particularly if it concerns rules and procedures, is capable of being implemented. Also attention needs to be shown with phraseologies which are error prone, confusing or too complex. More intangible are difficulties in symbology and the conceptual design of systems.
Liveware-hardware (The interface between people and hardware)
Another interactive component of the SHELL model is the interface between liveware and hardware. This interface is the one most commonly considered when speaking of human-machine systems: design of seats to fit the sitting characteristics of the human body, of displays to match the sensory and information processing characteristics of the user, of controls with proper movement, coding and location.
Hardware, for example in Air Traffic Control, refers to the physical features within the controlling environment, especially those relating to the work stations. As an example the press to talk switch is a hardware component which interfaces with liveware. The switch will have been designed to meet a number of expectations, including the probability that when it is pressed the controller has a live line to talk. Similarly, switches should have been positioned in locations that can be easily accessed by controllers in various situations and the manipulation of equipment should not impede the reading of displayed information or other devices which might need to be used at the same time.
Liveware – Environment (The interface between people and the environment)
The liveware – environment interface refers to those interactions which may be out of the direct control of humans, namely the physical environment – temperature, weather, etc., but within which aircraft operate. Much of the human factor development in this area has been concerned with designing ways in which people or equipment can be protected, developing protective systems for lights, noise, and radiation. The appropriate matching of the liveware – environmental interactions involve a wide array of disparate disciplines, from environmental studies, physiology, psychology through to physics and engineering.
Or
(b) Explain in detail about information processing with a neat diagram.
So, information processing refers to the ability of the operator to process the type and amount of information within the required timeframe, and to do so in an effective manner that leads to suitable responses.
controlled airspace, and can provide advisory services to aircraft in non-controlled airspace.
(a) Explain in detail about the Non-Verbal communication.
1. Body Language and Posture:
Nuance: Pilots and crew members convey confidence, attentiveness, and authority through their posture and body language.
Insight: A pilot standing tall with shoulders back and maintaining eye contact with air traffic control signals competence and readiness.
Example: During pre-flight checks, a co-pilot’s relaxed posture can reassure passengers, while a tense stance might raise concerns.
2. Gestures and Signals:
Nuance: Aviation professionals use standardized gestures and signals to communicate without words.
Insight: Air traffic controllers guide planes on the runway using hand signals, ensuring safe taxiing and takeoff.
Example: A controller’s extended arm indicates “hold position,” while a circular motion signals “clear to proceed.”
3. Facial Expressions:
Nuance: Pilots’ and crew members’ facial expressions convey emotions and intentions.
Insight: A friendly smile from cabin crew during boarding creates a positive passenger experience.
Example: A pilot’s focused expression during turbulence reassures passengers that everything is under control.
4. Eye Contact:
Nuance: Maintaining appropriate eye contact fosters trust and attentiveness.
Insight: Pilots should make eye contact during briefings to ensure everyone is engaged.
Example: A co-pilot’s reassuring glance at the captain during a challenging landing reinforces teamwork.
5. Proxemics (Personal Space):
Nuance: Understanding spatial boundaries is crucial.
Insight: Cabin crew must respect passengers’ personal space while assisting them.
Example: A flight attendant standing too close to a nervous passenger might increase discomfort.
Nuance: A well-maintained uniform reflects professionalism.
Insight: Crew members’ appearance impacts passengers’ perception of safety.
Example: A neatly groomed flight attendant inspires confidence in emergency situations.
7. Silence and Pauses:
Nuance: Silence can convey different meanings.
Insight: Air traffic controllers use strategic pauses to allow pilots to process instructions.
Example: A brief pause after a critical instruction ensures clarity and prevents misunderstandings.
8. Adaptation to Cultural Differences:
Nuance: Aviation professionals interact with diverse passengers and colleagues.
Insight: Understanding cultural norms prevents unintentional offense.
Example: A pilot adjusts communication style when working with an international crew.
Or
(b) Explain in detail about ADS and ADS-B.
ADS–B is a performance–based surveillance technology that is more precise than radar and consists of two different services: ADS–B Out and ADS–B In. ADS-B Out works by broadcasting information about an aircraft’s GPS location, altitude, ground speed and other data to ground stations and other aircraft, once per second.Called Automatic Dependent Surveillance–Broadcast (ADS-B), the technology will eventually replace radar as the primary surveillance method for Air Traffic Control (ATC) monitoring and separation of aircraft worldwide.
Automated Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B) provides position and state information about aircraft and is becoming an essential component in the global air traffic management system.Countries around the world are implementing a more accurate way of tracking aircraft. Called Automatic Dependent Surveillance–Broadcast (ADS-B), the technology will eventually replace radar as the primary surveillance method for Air Traffic Control (ATC) monitoring and separation of aircraft worldwide.
The United States and other countries have published regulations mandating ADS-B on aircraft operating in their regions according to differing schedules. Some countries that don’t yet require the equipment have designated special routes and airspace to benefit those who voluntarily equip.
ADS-B allows equipped aircraft and ground vehicles to broadcast their identification, position, altitude and velocity to other aircraft and ATC. This is called ADS-B Out. Being able to receive this information is known as ADS-B In.
“ADS-B Out is an evolutionary step in communication between the aircraft and other airspace consumers. Current transponders enable ATC and other aircraft to know your aircraft’s relative position and altitude. ADS-B adds important information to help project and prevent traffic conflicts by estimating intent,” explained Jake Biggs, Textron Aviation’s aftermarket engineering manager.
ADS-B advantages
Increase capacity and efficiency of airspace
Expand ATC surveillance into more areas
“ADS-B requires extremely accurate, three-dimensional position reporting to reduce reliance on ground-based radar to allow tighter separation standards. The advantage to all airspace users is an extremely accurate understanding of traffic and where it is going,” Biggs said.
How does it work?
In the United States, ADS-B-equipped aircraft and vehicles exchange information on one of two frequencies: 978 MHz or 1090 MHz. Mode A/C and S transponders, as well as Traffic Collision and Avoidance Systems (TCAS), use 1090 MHz. ADS-B extends the message elements of Mode S, adding information about the aircraft and its position. This extended squitter is known as 1090ES. An international technical advisory committee chose 1090ES as the worldwide standard for ADS-B.”The FAA has been systematically upgrading and deploying the ground networks. In the United States, there are two methods for achieving ADS-B Out. One is using the next generation of transponders operating on the 1090 MHz band. The other is using a new technology called Universal Access Transceiver (UAT),” Biggs said.
What equipment do I need?
Depending on the vintage of your aircraft, the equipment can be simple or complex. The good news is that you may have some elements already on board your aircraft.”ADS-B will require at least one Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)-capable GPS receiver connected directly to the transponders. The transponders will need to be upgraded to be compliant. If your aircraft is not already compliant with the European requirement for Enhanced Surveillance, then these are the additional steps you need to take,” Biggs said.
(a) Explain in detail the factors that lead to human error in ATC.
Those factors that make errors more or less likely are identified (such as poor design, distraction, time pressure, workload, competence, morale, noise levels and communication systems) – Performance Influencing Factors (PIFs)
The Dirty Dozen: Common human error factors in aircraft maintenance mishaps
Lack of communication 2. Complacency 3. Lack of knowledge. Distraction 5. Lack of teamwork 6. Fatigue. 7.Lack of resources 8. Pressure 9. Lack of assertiveness. 10. Stress 11. Lack of awareness 12. Norms.
Types of human failure
It is important to be aware that human failure is not random; understanding why errors occur and the different factors which make them worse will help you develop more effective controls. There are two main types of human failure: errors and violations.
A human error is an action or decision which was not intended. A violation is a deliberate deviation from a rule or procedure. HSG48 provides a fuller description of types of error, but the following may be a helpful introduction.
Some errors are slips or lapses, often “actions that were not as planned” or unintended actions. They occur during a familiar task and include slips (eg pressing the wrong button or reading the wrong gauge) and lapses (eg forgetting to carry out a step in a procedure). These types of error occur commonly in highly trained procedures where the person carrying them out does not need to concentrate on what they are doing. These cannot be eliminated by training, but improved design can reduce their likelihood and provide a more error tolerant system.
Other errors are Mistakes or errors of judgement or decision-making where the “intended actions are wrong” ie where we do the wrong thing believing it to be right. These tend to occur in situations where the person does not know the correct way of carrying out a task either because it is new and unexpected, or because they have not be properly trained (or both). Often in such circumstances, people fall back on remembered rules from similar situations which may not be correct. Training based on good procedures is the key to avoiding mistakes.
Violations (non-compliances, circumventions, shortcuts and work-arounds) differ from the above in that they are intentional but usually well-meaning failures where the person deliberately does not carry out the procedure correctly. They are rarely malicious (sabotage) and usually result from an intention to get the job done as efficiently as possible. They often occur where the equipment or task has been poorly designed and/or maintained. Mistakes resulting from poor training (ie people have not been properly trained in the safe working procedure) are often mistaken for violations. Understanding that violations are occurring and the reason for them is necessary if effective means for avoiding them are to be introduced. Peer pressure, unworkable rules and incomplete understanding can give rise to violations. HSG48 provides further information.
There are several ways to manage violations, including designing violations out, taking steps to increase their detection, ensuring that rules and procedures are relevant/practical and explaining the rationale behind certain rules. Involving the workforce in drawing up rules increases their acceptance. Getting to the root cause of any violation is the key to understanding and hence preventing the violation.
Understanding these different types of human failure can help identify control measures but you need to be careful you do not oversimplify the situation. In some cases it can be difficult to place an error in a single category – it may result from a slip or a mistake, for example. There may be a combination of underlying causes requiring a combination of preventative measures. It may also be useful to think about whether the failure is an error of omission (forgetting or missing out a key step) or an error of commission (eg doing something out of sequence or using the wrong control), and taking action to prevent that type of error.
The likelihood of these human failures is determined by the condition of a finite number of ‘performance influencing factors (PDF) ‘ , such as design of interfaces, distraction, time pressure, workload, competence, morale, noise levels and communication systems.
The List
1. Lack of communication 5. Complacency 9. Lack of knowledge
v2. Distraction 6. Lack of teamwork 10. Fatigue
3. Lack of resources 7. Pressure 11. Lack of assertiveness
4. Stress 8. Lack of awareness 12. Norms
Or
(b) Explain in detail the application of secondary RADAR.
Secondary surveillance radar (SSR) is a radar system used in air traffic control (ATC), that unlike primary radar systems that measure the bearing and distance of targets using the detected reflections of radio signals, relies on targets equipped with a radar transponder, that reply to each interrogation signal by .
RADARs Used In in Air Traffic Controller
RADARs are used to safely control air traffic. It is used to guide aircraft for proper landing and take-off during bad weather conditions. These RADARs also detect the proximity and the altitude of the aircraft.
We know that one of the core uses of Radar is to send and receive valuable information in the form of waves. RADAR is helpful in detecting incoming signals during war and also used by a geologist for earthquake detection. Archaeologists use this technology for detection of buried artifacts. It is also used to understand the environment and climatic changes.
Applications And Uses of RADAR
Applications and uses of Radar are given below:
Military
Law enforcement
Space
Remote sensing of environment
Aircraft navigation
Ship Navigation
Air Traffic Controller
RADARs Used In Military
RADARs have a wide range of usage in military operations. They are used in Naval, Ground as well as Air defence
purposes. They are used for detection, tracking and surveillance purposes also. Weapon control and missile guidance often use various types of RADARs.
RADARs Used In Law Enforcement
Law enforcement, especially highway police, has extensive use of RADARs during a pursuit to measure the speed of a vehicle. Due to bad weather conditions, when the satellite cannot get a clear image of traffic and barricades, RADARs are used to get the desired results.
RADARs Used In Space
RADARs in satellites are used for remote sensing. RADARs are used to track and detect satellites and spacecraft. They are also used for safely landing and docking spacecraft.
RADARs Used For Remote Sensing of Environment
Just like various types of waves are received by an antenna, this technology is also used to detect weather conditions of the atmosphere. It is also used for tracking the motions of planets, asteroids and other celestial bodies in the solar system.
RADARs Used In Aircraft Navigation’
Ground mapping and weather avoidance RADARs are used in aircraft to navigate them properly. This technology enables an aircraft to ensure the location of obstacles that can threaten the flight plan.
RADARs Used In Navigating Ships
Ships are guided through high resolution RADARs situated on the shores. Because of poor visibility in bad weather conditions, RADARs provide safety by warning threats. These ships often use this technology to measure the proximity of other ships and their speed on the water.
RADARs Used In in Air Traffic Controller
RADARs are used to safely control air traffic. It is used to guide aircraft for proper landing and take-off during bad weather conditions. These RADARs also detect the proximity and the altitude of the aircraft.